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How to Parse Articles - Limits/Uses - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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HOW TO PARSE ARTICLES


198. In parsing the article, tell--



(1) What word it limits.


(2) Which of the above uses it has.



Exercise


Parse the articles in the following:--


1. It is like gathering a few pebbles off the ground, or bottling

a little air in a phial, when the whole earth and the whole

atmosphere are ours.


2. Aristeides landed on the island with a body of Hoplites,

defeated the Persians and cut them to pieces to a man.


3. The wild fire that lit the eye of an Achilles can gleam no

more.


4. But it is not merely the neighborhood of the cathedral that is

mediæval; the whole city is of a piece.


5. To the herdsman among his cattle in remote woods, to the

craftsman in his rude workshop, to the great and to the little, a

new light has arisen.


6. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become

intelligent, and the wavering, determined.


7. The student is to read history actively, and not passively.


8. This resistance was the labor of his life.


9. There was always a hope, even in the darkest hour.


10. The child had a native grace that does not invariably coexist

with faultless beauty.


11. I think a mere gent (which I take to be the lowest form of

civilization) better than a howling, whistling, clucking,

stamping, jumping, tearing savage.


12. Every fowl whom Nature has taught to dip the wing in water.


13. They seem to be lines pretty much of a length.


14. Only yesterday, but what a gulf between now and then!


15. Not a brick was made but some man had to think of the making

of that brick.


16. The class of power, the working heroes, the Cortes, the

Nelson, the Napoleon, see that this is the festivity and

permanent celebration of such as they; that fashion is funded

talent.





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Uses of the Indefinite Article - Class/Proper/abstract/pure class nouns/one/each/every/with/many/what - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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USES OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE


[Sidenote: _Denotes any one of a class._]


188. The most frequent use of the indefinite article is to denote

any one of a class or group of objects: consequently it belongs to

singular words; as in the sentence,--


Near the churchyard gate stands _a_ poor-box, fastened to _a_

post by iron bands and secured by _a_ padlock, with _a_ sloping

wooden roof to keep off the rain.--LONGFELLOW


[Sidenote: _Widens the scope of proper nouns._]


189. When the indefinite article precedes proper names, it alters

them to class names. The qualities or attributes of the object are

made prominent, and transferred to any one possessing them; as,--


The vulgar riot and debauchery, which scarcely disgraced _an

Alcibiades_ or _a Cæsar_, have been exchanged for the higher

ideals of _a Bayard_ or _a Sydney_.--PEARSON


[Sidenote: _With abstract nouns._]


190. _An_ or _a_ before abstract nouns often changes them to half

abstract: the idea of quality remains, but the word now denotes only

one instance or example of things possessing the quality.


[Sidenote: _Become half abstract._]


The simple perception of natural forms is _a delight_.--EMERSON


If thou hadst _a sorrow_ of thine own, the brook might tell thee

of it.--HAWTHORNE


In the first sentence, instead of the general abstract notion of

delight, which cannot be singular or plural, _a delight_ means one

thing delightful, and implies others having the same quality.


So _a sorrow_ means one cause of sorrow, implying that there are

other things that bring sorrow.


[Sidenote: _Become pure class nouns._]


NOTE.--Some abstract nouns become common class nouns with the

indefinite article, referring simply to persons; thus,--


If the poet of the "Rape of the Lock" be not _a wit_, who

deserves to be called so?--THACKERAY.


He had a little brother in London with him at this time,--as

great _a beauty_, as great a dandy, as great a villain.--_Id._


_A youth_ to fortune and to fame unknown.--GRAY.


[Sidenote: _Changes material to class nouns._]


191. _An_ or _a_ before a material noun indicates the change to a

class noun, meaning one kind or a detached portion; as,--


They that dwell up in the steeple,...

Feel a glory in so rolling

On the human heart _a stone_.

--POE.


When God at first made man,

Having _a glass_ of blessings standing by.

--HERBERT.


The roofs were turned into arches of massy stone, joined by _a

cement_ that grew harder by time.--JOHNSON.


[Sidenote: _Like the numeral adjective_ one.]


192. In some cases _an_ or _a_ has the full force of the numeral

adjective _one_. It is shown in the following:--


To every room there was _an_ open and _a_ secret

passage.--JOHNSON.


In a short time these become a small tree, _an_ inverted pyramid

resting on the apex of the other.--THOREAU.


All men are at last of _a_ size.--EMERSON.


At the approach of spring the red squirrels got under my house,

two at _a_ time.--THOREAU.


[Sidenote: _Equivalent to the word_ each _or_ every.]


193. Often, also, the indefinite article has the force of _each_ or

_every_, particularly to express measure or frequency.


It would be so much more pleasant to live at his ease than to

work eight or ten hours _a day_.--BULWER


[Sidenote: _Compare to Sec. 184._]


Strong beer, such as we now buy for eighteenpence _a gallon_, was

then a penny _a gallon_.--FROUDE



[Sidenote: _With_ such, many, what.]


194. _An_ or _a_ is added to the adjectives _such_, _many_, and

_what_, and may be considered a part of these in modifying

substantives.


How was I to pay _such a_ debt?--THACKERAY.


_Many a_ one you and I have had here below.--THACKERAY.


_What a_ world of merriment then melody foretells!--POE.


[Sidenote: _With_ not _and_ many.]


195 LIST III.


A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:--


After Over Under Nether.


_Not_ and _never_ with _a_ or _an_ are numeral adjectives,

instead of adverbs, which they are in general.


_Not a_ drum was heard, _not a_ funeral note.--WOLFE


My Lord Duke was as hot as a flame at this salute, but said

_never a_ word.--THACKERAY.


NOTE.--All these have the function of adjectives; but in the last

analysis of the expressions, _such_, _many_, _not_, etc., might be

considered as adverbs modifying the article.



[Sidenote: _With_ few _or_ little.]


196. The adjectives _few_ and _little_ have the negative meaning of

_not much_, _not many_, without the article; but when _a_ is put

before them, they have the positive meaning of _some_. Notice the

contrast in the following sentences:--


Of the country beyond the Mississippi _little_ more was known

than of the heart of Africa.--MCMASTER


To both must I of necessity cling, supported always by the hope

that when _a little_ time, _a few_ years, shall have tried me

more fully in their esteem, I may be able to bring them

together.--_Keats's Letters_.


_Few_ of the great characters of history have been so differently

judged as Alexander.--SMITH, _History of Greece_


[Sidenote: _With adjectives, changed to nouns_.]


197. When _the_ is used before adjectives with no substantive

following (Sec. 181 and note), these words are adjectives used as

nouns, or pure nouns; but when _an_ or _a_ precedes such words, they

are always nouns, having the regular use and inflections of nouns; for

example,--


Such are the words _a brave_ should use.--COOPER.


In the great society of wits, John Gay deserves to be _a

favorite_, and to have a good place.--THACKERAY


Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for

use in the verses of _a rival_.--PEARSON.


Exercise

Bring up sentences with five uses of the indefinite article.




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Uses Of The Definite Article - Ref.Object/Rivers/Attributes/Abstract nouns/Adjectives/Caution/Possessive - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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USES OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE


[Sidenote: _Reference to a known object._]


177. The most common use of the definite article is to refer to an

object that the listener or reader is already acquainted with; as in

the sentence,--


Don't you remember how, when _the_ dragon was infesting _the_

neighborhood of Babylon, _the_ citizens used to walk dismally out

of evenings, and look at _the_ valleys round about strewed with

_the_ bones?--THACKERAY.


NOTE.--This use is noticed when, on opening a story, a person is

introduced by _a_, and afterwards referred to by _the_:--


By and by _a_ giant came out of the dark north, and lay down on

the ice near Audhumla.... _The_ giant frowned when he saw the

glitter of the golden hair.--_Heroes of Asgard._



[Sidenote: _With names of rivers._]


178. _The_ is often prefixed to the names of rivers; and when the

word _river_ is omitted, as "_the_ Mississippi," "_the_ Ohio," the

article indicates clearly that a river, and not a state or other

geographical division, is referred to.


No wonder I could face _the_ Mississippi with so much courage

supplied to me.--THACKERAY.


The Dakota tribes, doubtless, then occupied the country southwest

of _the_ Missouri.--G. BANCROFT.



[Sidenote: _To call attention to attributes._]


179. When _the_ is prefixed to a proper name, it alters the force of

the noun by directing attention to _certain qualities_ possessed by

the person or thing spoken of; thus,--


_The_ Bacon, _the_ Spinoza, _the_ Hume, Schelling, Kant, or

whosoever propounds to you a philosophy of the mind, is only a

more or less awkward translator of things in your

consciousness.--EMERSON.



[Sidenote: _With plural of abstract nouns._]


180. _The_, when placed before the pluralized abstract noun, marks

it as half abstract or a common noun.


[Sidenote: _Common._]


His messages to _the_ provincial _authorities_.--MOTLEY.


[Sidenote: _Half abstract._]


He was probably skilled in _the subtleties_ of Italian

statesmanship.--_Id._


[Sidenote: _With adjectives used as nouns._]


181. When _the_ precedes adjectives of the positive degree used

substantively, it marks their use as common and plural nouns when they

refer to persons, and as singular and abstract when they refer to

qualities.


1. _The simple_ rise as by specific levity, not into a particular

virtue, but into the region of all the virtues.--EMERSON.


2. If _the good_ is there, so is _the evil_.--_Id._


[Sidenote: _Caution._]


NOTE.--This is not to be confused with words that have shifted from

adjectives and become pure nouns; as,--


As she hesitated to pass on, _the gallant_, throwing his cloak

from his shoulders, laid it on the miry spot.--SCOTT.


But De Soto was no longer able to abate the confidence or punish

the temerity of _the natives_.--G. BANCROFT.


[Sidenote: _One thing for its class._]


182. _The_ before class nouns may mark one thing as a representative

of the class to which it belongs; for example,--


The faint, silvery warblings heard over the partially bare and

moist fields from _the bluebird_, _the song sparrow_, and _the

redwing_, as if the last flakes of winter tinkled as they

fell!--THOREAU.


In the sands of Africa and Arabia _the camel_ is a sacred and

precious gift.--GIBBON.


[Sidenote: _For possessive person pronouns._]


183. _The_ is frequently used instead of the possessive case of the

personal pronouns _his_, _her_, etc.


More than one hinted that a cord twined around _the head_, or a

match put between _the fingers_, would speedily extract the

required information.--KINGSLEY.


_The_ mouth, and the region of the mouth, were about the

strongest features in Wordsworth's face.--DE QUINCEY.



[Sidenote: The _for_ a.]


184. In England and Scotland _the_ is often used where we use _a_,

in speaking of measure and price; as,--


Wheat, the price of which necessarily varied, averaged in the

middle of the fourteenth century tenpence _the bushel_, barley

averaging at the same time three shillings _the

quarter_.--FROUDE.



[Sidenote: _A very strong restrictive._]


185. Sometimes _the_ has a strong force, almost equivalent to a

descriptive adjective in emphasizing a word,--


No doubt but ye are _the_ people, and wisdom shall die with

you.--_Bible._


As for New Orleans, it seemed to me _the_ city of the world where

you can eat and drink the most and suffer the least.--THACKERAY.


He was _the_ man in all Europe that could (if any could) have

driven six-in-hand full gallop over Al Sirat.--DE QUINCEY.



[Sidenote: _Mark of a substantive._]


186. _The_, since it belongs distinctively to substantives, is a

sure indication that a word of verbal form is not used participially,

but substantively.


In the hills of Sacramento there is gold for _the

gathering_.--EMERSON.


I thought _the writing_ excellent, and wished, if possible, to

imitate it.--FRANKLIN.



[Sidenote: _Caution._]


187. There is one use of _the_ which is different from all the

above. It is an adverbial use, and is spoken of more fully in Sec.

283. Compare this sentence with those above:--


There was something ugly and evil in his face, which they had not

previously noticed, and which grew still _the more obvious_ to

the sight _the oftener_ they looked upon him.--HAWTHORNE.


Exercise


Find sentences with five uses of the definite article.



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Articles - Origin/Relics/A/An/The/Def./Kinds - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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171. There is a class of words having always an adjectival use in

general, but with such subtle functions and various meanings that they

deserve separate treatment. In the sentence, "He passes an ordinary

brick house on the road, with an ordinary little garden," the words

_the_ and _an_ belong to nouns, just as adjectives do; but they cannot

be accurately placed under any class of adjectives. They are nearest

to demonstrative and numeral adjectives.


[Sidenote: _Their origin._]


172. The article the comes from an old demonstrative adjective

(_se_, _seo_, _ðat_, later _the_, _theo_, _that_) which was also an

article in Old English. In Middle English _the_ became an article, and

_that_ remained a demonstrative adjective.


An or a came from the old numeral _an_, meaning _one_.


[Sidenote: _Two relics._]


Our expressions _the one_, _the other_, were formerly _that one_,

_that other_; the latter is still preserved in the expression, in

vulgar English, _the tother_. Not only this is kept in the Scotch

dialect, but the former is used, these occurring as _the tane, the

tother_, or _the tane, the tither_; for example,--


We ca' her sometimes _the tane_, sometimes _the tother_.--SCOTT.


[Sidenote: An _before vowel sounds_, a _before consonant sounds_.]


173. Ordinarily _an_ is used before vowel sounds, and _a_ before

consonant sounds. Remember that a _vowel sound_ does not necessarily

mean beginning with a vowel, nor does _consonant sound_ mean

beginning with a consonant, because English spelling does not

coincide closely with the sound of words. Examples: "_a_ house," "_an_

orange," "_a_ European," "_an_ honor," "_a_ yelling crowd."


[Sidenote: An _with consonant sounds_.]


174. Many writers use _an_ before _h_, even when not silent, when

the word is not accented on the first syllable.


_An_ historian, such as we have been attempting to describe,

would indeed be an intellectual prodigy.--MACAULAY.


The Persians were _an_ heroic people like the Greeks.--BREWER.


He [Rip] evinced _an_ hereditary disposition to attend to

anything else but his business.--IRVING.


_An_ habitual submission of the understanding to mere events and

images.--COLERIDGE.


_An_ hereditary tenure of these offices.--THOMAS JEFFERSON.


[Sidenote: _Definition._]


175. An article is a limiting word, not descriptive, which cannot

be used alone, but always joins to a substantive word to denote a

particular thing, or a group or class of things, or any individual of

a group or class.


[Sidenote: _Kinds._]


176. Articles are either definite or indefinite.


The is the definite article, since it points out a particular

individual, or group, or class.


An or a is the indefinite article, because it refers to any one of

a group or class of things.

An and a are different forms of the same word, the older _an_.






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Exercise - Parse - Adjective - Sentences - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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Exercise


Parse in full each adjective in these sentences:--


1. A thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to

Eliza.


2. The huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched

and creaked.


3. I ask nothing of you, then, but that you proceed to your end

by a direct, frank, manly way.


4. She made no reply, and I waited for none.


5. A herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their

way, with awkward but rapid pace, across the plain.


6. Gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible

enemy, whose grasp each moment grew more fierce and secure, and

most astounding were those frightful yells.


7. This gave the young people entire freedom, and they enjoyed it

to the fullest extent.


8. I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as justice.


9. To every Roman citizen he gives, To every several man,

seventy-five drachmas.


10. Each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his or

her birthday, on which occasion the elders of the family were

bound to be absent.


11. Instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the

bridge, yonder oxen in the pasture, those dogs in the yard, are

immutably fishes, oxen, and dogs.


12. I know not what course others may take.


13. With every third step, the tomahawk fell.


14. What a ruthless business this war of extermination is!


15. I was just emerging from that many-formed crystal country.


16. On what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed?


17. The laws and institutions of his country ought to have been

more to him than all the men in his country.


18. Like most gifted men, he won affections with ease.


19. His letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward

fortunes of those he loves, yet are remarkably self-forgetful.


20. Their name was the last word upon his lips.


21. The captain said it was the last stick he had seen.


22. Before sunrise the next morning they let us out again.


23. He was curious to know to what sect we belonged.


24. Two hours elapsed, during which time I waited.


25. In music especially, you will soon find what personal benefit

there is in being serviceable.


26. To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality, and

hates nothing so much as pretenders.


27. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were

few, as for armies that were too many by half.


28. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, the

same love to France would have been nurtured.


29. What advantage was open to him above the English boy?


30. Nearer to our own times, and therefore more interesting to

us, is the settlement of our own country.


31. Even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all

directions, and many poles supported the lower ones.


32. Most fruits depend entirely on our care.


33. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most

unfavorable position, suggests such thoughts as these, it is so

noble a fruit.


34. Let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like, he is no

literary man.


35. Through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit!


36. Whatsoever power exists will have itself organized.


37. A hard-struggling, weary-hearted man was he.






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Adverbs Used As Adjectives/Parsing - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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ADVERBS USED AS ADJECTIVES


169. By a convenient brevity, adverbs are sometimes used as

adjectives; as, instead of saying, "the one who was then king," in

which _then_ is an adverb, we may say "the _then_ king," making _then_

an adjective. Other instances are,--


My _then_ favorite, in prose, Richard Hooker.--RUSKIN.


Our _sometime_ sister, now our queen.--SHAKESPEARE


Messrs. Bradbury and Evans, the _then_ and _still_ owners.

--TROLLOPE.


The _seldom_ use of it.--TRENCH.


For thy stomach's sake, and thine _often_ infirmities.--_Bible._




HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES



[Sidenote: _What to tell in parsing._]


170. Since adjectives have no gender, person, or case, and very few

have number, the method of parsing is simple.


In parsing an adjective, tell--


(1) The class and subclass to which it belongs.


(2) Its number, if it has number.


(3) Its degree of comparison, if it can be compared.


(4) What word or words it modifies.



MODEL FOR PARSING


These truths are not unfamiliar to your thoughts.


_These_ points out _what_ truths, therefore demonstrative; plural

number, having a singular, _this_; cannot be compared; modifies the

word _truths_.


_Unfamiliar_ describes _truths_, therefore descriptive; not inflected

for number; compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_; positive degree;

modifies _truths_.






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Caution For Analyzing Or Parsing - Remarks On Irregular Adjectives - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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CAUTION FOR ANALYZING OR PARSING


[Sidenote: _Think what each adjective belongs to._]


168. Some care must be taken to decide what word is modified by an

adjective. In a series of adjectives in the same sentence, all may

belong to the same noun, or each may modify a different word or group

of words.


For example, in this sentence, "The young pastor's voice was

tremulously sweet, rich, deep, and broken," it is clear that all four

adjectives after _was_ modify the noun _voice_. But in this sentence,

"She showed her usual prudence and her usual incomparable decision,"

_decision_ is modified by the adjective _incomparable_; _usual_

modifies _incomparable decision_, not _decision_ alone; and the

pronoun _her_ limits _usual incomparable decision_.


Adjectives modifying the same noun are said to be of the _same rank_;

those modifying different words or word groups are said to be

adjectives of _different rank_. This distinction is valuable in a

study of punctuation.


Exercise


In the following quotations, tell what each adjective modifies:--


1. Whenever that look appeared in her wild, bright, deeply black

eyes, it invested them with a strange remoteness and

intangibility.--HAWTHORNE.


2. It may still be argued, that in the present divided state of

Christendom a college which is positively Christian must be

controlled by some religious denomination.--NOAH PORTER.


3. Every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood

backward to her heart.--MRS. STOWE.


4. This, our new government, is the first in the history of the

world based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral

truth.--A.H. STEPHENS


5. May we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate

universal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system

rests?--_Id._


6. A few improper jests and a volley of good, round, solid,

satisfactory, and heaven-defying oaths.--HAWTHORNE.


7. It is well known that the announcement at any private rural

entertainment that there is to be ice cream produces an immediate

and profound impression.--HOLMES.






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Remarks On Irregular Adjectives - Most - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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[Sidenote: _List II._]


165. In List II. (Sec. 163) the comparatives and superlatives are

adjectives, but they have no adjective positives.


The comparatives are so in form, but not in their meaning.


The superlatives show examples again of double inflection, and of

comparative added to double-superlative inflection.


Examples (from Carlyle) of the use of these adjectives: "revealing the

_inner_ splendor to him;" "a mind that has penetrated into the

_inmost_ heart of a thing;" "This of painting is one of the

_outermost_ developments of a man;" "The _outer_ is of the day;"

"far-seeing as the sun, the _upper_ light of the world;" "the

_innermost_ moral soul;" "their _utmost_ exertion."



[Sidenote: -Most _added to other words_.]


166. The ending _-most_ is added to some words that are not usually

adjectives, or have no comparative forms.


There, on the very _topmost_ twig, sits that ridiculous but

sweet-singing bobolink.--H.W. BEECHER.


Decidedly handsome, having such a skin as became a young woman of

family in _northernmost_ Spain.--DE QUINCEY.


Highest and _midmost_, was descried The royal banner floating

wide.--SCOTT.



[Sidenote: _List III._]


167. The adjectives in List III. are like the comparative forms in

List II. in having no adjective positives. They have no superlatives,

and have no comparative force, being merely descriptive.


Her bows were deep in the water, but her _after_ deck was still

dry.--KINGSLEY.


Her, by the by, in _after_ years I vainly endeavored to

trace.--DE QUINCEY.


The upper and the _under_ side of the medal of Jove.--EMERSON.


Have you ever considered what a deep _under_ meaning there lies

in our custom of strewing flowers?--RUSKIN.


Perhaps he rose out of some _nether_ region.--HAWTHORNE.


_Over_ is rarely used separately as an adjective.





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Remarks On Irregular Adjectives - Good/Evil/Little/Much/Elder/Far/Last /Hinder - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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Remarks on Irregular Adjectives



[Sidenote: _List I._]



164. (1) The word good has no comparative or superlative, but takes

the place of a positive to _better_ and _best_. There was an old

comparative _bet_, which has gone out of use; as in the sentence (14th

century), "Ich singe _bet_ than thu dest" (I sing better than thou

dost). The superlative I form was _betst_, which has softened to the

modern _best_.


(2) In Old English, evil was the positive to _worse_, _worst_; but

later _bad_ and _ill_ were borrowed from the Norse, and used as

positives to the same comparative and superlative. _Worser_ was once

used, a double comparative; as in Shakespeare,--


O, throw away the _worser_ part of it.--HAMLET.


(3) Little is used as positive to _less_, _least_, though from a

different root. A double comparative, _lesser_, is often used; as,--


We have it in a much _lesser_ degree.--MATTHEW ARNOLD.


Thrust the _lesser_ half by main force into the fists of Ho-ti.

--LAMB.


(4) The words much and many now express quantity; but in former

times _much_ was used in the sense of _large_, _great_, and was the

same word that is found in the proverb, "Many a little makes _a

mickle_." Its spelling has been _micel_, _muchel_, _moche_, _much_,

the parallel form _mickle_ being rarely used.


The meanings _greater_, _greatest_, are shown in such phrases as,--


The _more_ part being of one mind, to England we

sailed.--KINGSLEY.


The _most_ part kept a stolid indifference.--_Id._


The latter, meaning _the largest part_, is quite common.


(5) The forms elder, eldest, are earlier than _older_, _oldest_. A

few other words with the vowel _o_ had similar change in the

comparative and superlative, as _long_, _strong_, etc.; but these have

followed _old_ by keeping the same vowel _o_ in all the forms, instead

of _lenger_, _strenger_, etc., the old forms.


(6) and (7) Both nigh and near seem regular in Modern English,

except the form _next_; but originally the comparison was _nigh_,

_near_, _next_. In the same way the word high had in Middle English

the superlative _hexte_.


By and by the comparative _near_ was regarded as a positive form, and

on it were built a double comparative _nearer_, and the superlative

_nearest_, which adds _-est_ to what is really a comparative instead

of a simple adjective.


(8) These words also show confusion and consequent modification,

coming about as follows: further really belongs to another

series,--_forth_, _further_, _first_. First became entirely

detached from the series, and _furthest_ began to be used to follow

the comparative _further_; then these were used as comparative and

superlative of _far_.


The word far had formerly the comparative and superlative _farrer_,

_farrest_. In imitation of _further_, _furthest_, _th_ came into the

others, making the modern _farther_, _farthest_. Between the two sets

as they now stand, there is scarcely any distinction, except perhaps

_further_ is more used than _farther_ in the sense of _additional_;

as, for example,--


When that evil principle was left with no _further_ material to

support it.--HAWTHORNE.


(9) Latter and last are the older forms. Since _later_, _latest_,

came into use, a distinction has grown up between the two series.

_Later_ and _latest_ have the true comparative and superlative force,

and refer to time; _latter_ and _last_ are used in speaking of

succession, or series, and are hardly thought of as connected in

meaning with the word _late_.


(10) Hinder is comparative in form, but not in meaning. The form

_hindmost_ is really a double superlative, since the _m_ is for _-ma_,

an old superlative ending, to which is added _-ost_, doubling the

inflection. _Hind-er-m-ost_ presents the combination comparative +

superlative + superlative.






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Adjectives - Irregularly Compared - Lists - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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[Sidenote: _Adjectives irregularly compared._]


163. Among the variously derived adjectives now in our language

there are some which may always be recognized as native English. These

are adjectives irregularly compared.


Most of them have worn down or become confused with similar words, but

they are essentially the same forms that have lived for so many

centuries.


The following lists include the majority of them:--



LIST I


1. Good or well Better Best

2. Evil, bad, ill Worse Worst

3. Little Less, lesser Least

4. Much or many More Most

5. Old Elder, older Eldest, oldest

6. Nigh Nigher Nighest, next

7. Near Nearer Nearest

8. Far Farther, further Farthest, furthest

9. Late Later, latter Latest, last

10. Hind Hinder Hindmost, hindermost



LIST II


These have no adjective positive:--


1. [In] Inner Inmost, innermost

2. [Out] Outer, utter {Outmost, outermost

{Utmost, uttermost

3. [Up] Upper Upmost, uppermost



LIST III


A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:--


After Over Under Nether








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Adjective - Comparison - Positive/Comparative/Superlative -

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[Sidenote: _The two forms._]


158. There are two forms for this inflection: the comparative,

expressing a greater degree of quality; and the superlative,

expressing the greatest degree of quality.


These are called degrees of comparison.


These are properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflected

form is usually called the positive degree.



159. The comparative is formed by adding _-er_, and the superlative

by adding _-est_, to the simple form; as,

_red_, _redder_, _reddest_;

_blue_, _bluer_, _bluest_;

_easy_, _easier_, _easiest_.



[Sidenote: _Substitute for inflection in comparison._]


160. Side by side with these inflected forms are found comparative

and superlative expressions making use of the adverbs more and

most. These are often useful as alternative with the inflected

forms, but in most cases are used before adjectives that are never

inflected.


They came into use about the thirteenth century, but were not common

until a century later.



[Sidenote: _Which rule_,-- -er _and_ -est _or_ more _and_ most?]


161. The English is somewhat capricious in choosing between the

inflected forms and those with _more_ and _most_, so that no

inflexible rule can be given as to the formation of the comparative

and the superlative.


The general rule is, that monosyllables and easily pronounced words of

two syllables add _-er_ and _-est_; and other words are preceded by

_more_ and _most_.


But room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound and for

variety of expression.


To see how literary English overrides any rule that could be given,

examine the following taken at random:--


From Thackeray: "The _handsomest_ wives;" "the _immensest_ quantity of

thrashing;" "the _wonderfulest_ little shoes;" "_more odd, strange_,

and yet familiar;" "_more austere_ and _holy_."


From Ruskin: "The sharpest, finest chiseling, and _patientest_

fusing;" "_distantest_ relationships;" "_sorrowfulest_ spectacles."


Carlyle uses _beautifulest_, _mournfulest_, _honestest_,

_admirablest_, _indisputablest_, _peaceablest_, _most small_, etc.


These long, harsh forms are usually avoided, but _more_ and _most_ are

frequently used with monosyllables.



162. Expressions are often met with in which a superlative form does

not carry the superlative meaning. These are equivalent usually to

_very_ with the positive degree; as,--


To this the Count offers a _most wordy_ declaration of the

benefits conferred by Spain.--_The Nation_, No 1507


In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be a

_most genuine_ substance.--CARLYLE


A gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, was _most

finished_, _polished_, _witty_, _easy_, _quiet_.--THACKERAY


He had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which

hung behind in the _queerest_ way.--_Id._


"So help me God, madam, I will," said Henry Esmond, falling on

his knees, and kissing the hand of his _dearest_ mistress.--_Id._







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Comparison - Meaning/Def - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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COMPARISON


155. Comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and

pronouns: it belongs to adjectives and adverbs.


[Sidenote: _Meaning of comparison._]


When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differences

between them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, it is said that a

cow is _larger_ than a sheep, gold is _heavier_ than iron, a sapphire

is _bluer_ than the sky. All these have certain qualities; and when we

compare the objects, we do so by means of their qualities,--cow and

sheep by the quality of largeness, or size; gold and iron by the

quality of heaviness, or weight, etc.,--but not the same degree, or

amount, of the quality.


The degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known or

conceived of as possessing quality; as, "untamed thought, great,

giant-like, enormous;" "the commonest speech;" "It is a nobler valor;"

"the largest soul."


Also words of quantity may be compared: for example, "more matter,

with less wit;" "no fewer than a hundred."



[Sidenote: _Words that cannot be compared._]


156. There are some descriptive words whose meaning is such as not

to admit of comparison; for example,--


His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of

arms, whose _favorite_ pupil he was.--THACKERAY.


A _main_ difference betwixt men is, whether they attend their own

affair or not.--EMERSON


It was his business to administer the law in its _final_ and

closest application to the offender--HAWTHORNE.


Freedom is a _perpetual, organic, universal_ institution, in

harmony with the Constitution of the United States.--SEWARD.


So with the words _sole_, _sufficient_, _infinite_, _immemorial_,

_indefatigable_, _indomitable_, _supreme_, and many others.


It is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to them,

but, strictly considered, they are not compared.



[Sidenote: _Definition._]


157. Comparison means the changes that words undergo to express

degrees in quality, or amounts in quantity.






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Inflections OF Adjectives - This/That/These/Those - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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INFLECTIONS OF ADJECTIVES



153 .Adjectives have two inflections,--number and comparison.



NUMBER.--_This_, _That_.



[Sidenote: _History of_ this--these _and_ that--those.]


154. The only adjectives having a plural form are _this_ and _that_

(plural _these_, _those_).


_This_ is the old demonstrative; _that_ being borrowed from the forms

of the definite article, which was fully inflected in Old English. The

article _that_ was used with neuter nouns.


In Middle English the plural of _this_ was _this_ or _thise_, which

changed its spelling to the modern form _these_.


[Sidenote: Those _borrowed from_ this.]


But _this_ had also another plural, _thas_ (modern _those_). The old

plural of _that_ was _tha_ (Middle English _tho_ or _thow_):

consequently _tho_ (plural of _that_) and _those_ (plural of _this_)

became confused, and it was forgotten that _those_ was really the

plural of _this_; and in Modern English we speak of _these_ as the

plural of _this_, and _those_ as the plural of _that_.






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Pronominal Adjectives - Def/Relative/Indefinite/Interrogative/Exclamatory - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES


[Sidenote: _Definition._]


148. As has been said, pronominal adjectives are primarily

pronouns; but, when they _modify_ words instead of referring to them

as antecedents, they are changed to adjectives. They are of two

kinds,--RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE,--and are used to join sentences or

to ask questions, just as the corresponding pronouns do.


[Sidenote: _Modify names of persons or things._]


149. The RELATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_; for example,--


It matters not _what_ rank he has, _what_ revenues or garnitures.

--CARLYLE.


The silver and laughing Xenil, careless _what_ lord should

possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting

course.--BULWER.


The taking of _which_ bark. I verily believe, was the ruin of

every mother's son of us.--KINGSLEY.


In _which_ evil strait Mr. Oxenham fought desperately.--_Id._



[Sidenote: _Indefinite relative adjectives._]


150. The INDEFINITE RELATIVE adjectives are _what_, _whatever_,

_whatsoever_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_. Examples of their use are,--


He in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, make _what_ sour

mouths he would for pretense, proved not altogether displeasing

to him.--LAMB.


_Whatever_ correction of our popular views from insight, nature

will be sure to bear us out in.--EMERSON.


_Whatsoever_ kind of man he is, you at least give him full
authority over your son.--RUSKIN.

Was there, as it rather seemed, a circle of ominous shadow moving

along with his deformity, _whichever_ way he turned

himself?--HAWTHORNE.


New torments I behold, and new tormented

Around me, _whichsoever_ way I move,

And _whichsoever_ way I turn, and gaze.

--LONGFELLOW (FROM DANTE).



151. The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_. They may

be used in direct and indirect questions. As in the pronouns, _which_

is selective among what is known; _what_ inquires about things or

persons not known.


[Sidenote: _In direct questions._]


Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in direct questions:--


_Which_ debt must I pay first, the debt to the rich, or the debt

to the poor?--EMERSON.


But when the Trojan war comes, _which_ side will you take?

--THACKERAY.

But _what_ books in the circulating library circulate?--LOWELL.


_What_ beckoning ghost along the moonlight shade

Invites my steps, and points to yonder glade?--POPE.


[Sidenote: _In indirect questions._]


Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in indirect questions:--


His head...looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle

neck to tell _which_ way the wind blew.--IRVING.


A lady once remarked, he [Coleridge] could never fix _which_ side

of the garden walk would suit him best.--CARLYLE.


He was turned before long into all the universe, where it was

uncertain _what_ game you would catch, or whether any.--_Id._


At _what_ rate these materials would be distributed and

precipitated in regular strata, it is impossible to

determine.--AGASSIZ.



[Sidenote: _Adjective_ what _in exclamations_.]


152. In exclamatory expressions, _what_ (or _what a_) has a force

somewhat like a descriptive adjective. It is neither relative nor

interrogative, but might be called an EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE; as,--



Oh, _what a_ revolution! and _what a_ heart must I have, to

contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall!--BURKE.


_What a_ piece of work is man!--SHAKESPEARE.


And yet, alas, the making of it right, _what a_ business for long

time to come!--CARLYLE


Through _what_ hardships it may attain to bear a sweet

fruit!--THOREAU.



Exercise


Find ten sentences containing pronominal adjectives.






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Demonstrative Adjectives - Types - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES


[Sidenote: _Not primarily pronouns._]


146. The words of this list are placed here instead of among

pronominal adjectives, for the reason that they are felt to be

primarily adjectives; their pronominal use being evidently a

shortening, by which the words point out but stand for words omitted,

instead of modifying them. Their natural and original use is to be

joined to a noun following or in close connection.


[Sidenote: _The list._]


The demonstrative adjectives are _this_, _that_, (plural _these_,

_those_), _yonder_ (or _yon_), _former_, _latter_; also the pairs

_one_ (or _the one_)--_the other_, _the former_--_the latter_, used to

refer to two things which have been already named in a sentence.


[Sidenote: _Examples._]


The following sentences present some examples:--


The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, The matron's glance

that would _those_ looks reprove.--GOLDSMITH.


These were thy charms...but all _these_ charms are fled.--_Id._


About _this_ time I met with an odd volume of the

"Spectator."--B. FRANKLIN.


_Yonder_ proud ships are not means of annoyance to you.--D.

WEBSTER.


_Yon_ cloud with _that_ long purple cleft.--WORDSWORTH.


I chose for the students of Kensington two characteristic

examples of early art, of equal skill; but in _the one_ case,

skill which was progressive--in _the other_, skill which was at

pause.--RUSKIN.


Exercise


Find sentences with five demonstrative adjectives.



[Sidenote: _Ordinal numerals classed under demonstratives._]


147. The class of numerals known as ordinals must be placed here,

as having the same function as demonstrative adjectives. They point

out which thing is meant among a series of things mentioned. The

following are examples:--


The _first_ regular provincial newspapers appear to have been

created in the last decade of the _seventeenth_ century, and by

the middle of the _eighteenth_ century almost every important

provincial town had its local organ.--BANCROFT.


These do not, like the other numerals, tell _how many_ things are

meant. When we speak of the seventeenth century, we imply nothing as

to how many centuries there may be.






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Adjectives Of Quantity - Bulk/Number/Numerals - Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar

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ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY


145. Adjectives of quantity tell _how much_ or _how many_. They have

these three subdivisions:--


[Sidenote: _How much._]


(1) QUANTITY IN BULK: such words as _little_, _much_, _some_, _no_,

_any_, _considerable_, sometimes _small_, joined usually to singular

nouns to express an indefinite measure of the thing spoken of.


The following examples are from Kingsley:--


So he parted with _much_ weeping of the lady.

Which we began to do with _great_ labor and _little_ profit.

Because I had _some_ knowledge of surgery and blood-letting.

But ever she looked on Mr. Oxenham, and seemed to take _no_

care as long as he was by.


Examples of _small_ an adjective of quantity:--


"The deil's in it but I bude to anger him!" said the woman, and

walked away with a laugh of _small_ satisfaction.--MACDONALD.


'Tis midnight, but _small_ thoughts have I of sleep.--COLERIDGE.


It gives _small_ idea of Coleridge's way of talking.--CARLYLE.


When _some_, _any_, _no_, are used with plural nouns, they come under

the next division of adjectives.


[Sidenote: _How many._]


(2) QUANTITY IN NUMBER, which may be expressed exactly by numbers or

remotely designated by words expressing indefinite amounts. Hence the

natural division into--


(_a_) _Definite numerals_; as, "_one_ blaze of musketry;" "He found in

the pathway _fourteen_ Spaniards;" "I have lost _one_ brother, but I

have gained _fourscore_;" "_a dozen_ volunteers."


(_b_) _Indefinite numerals_, as the following from Kingsley: "We gave

_several_ thousand pounds for it;" "In came some five and twenty more,

and with them _a few_ negroes;" "Then we wandered for _many_ days;"

"Amyas had evidently _more_ schemes in his head;" "He had lived by

hunting for _some_ months;" "That light is far too red to be the

reflection of _any_ beams of hers."



[Sidenote: _Single ones of any number of changes._]


(3) DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS, which occupy a place midway between the

last two subdivisions of numeral adjectives; for they are indefinite

in telling how many objects are spoken of, but definite in referring

to the objects one at a time. Thus,--


_Every_ town had its fair; _every_ village, its wake.--THACKERAY.


An arrow was quivering in _each_ body.--KINGSLEY.


Few on _either_ side but had their shrewd scratch to show.--_Id._


Before I taught my tongue to wound

My conscience with a sinful sound,

Or had the black art to dispense

A _several_ sin to _every_ sense.--VAUGHAN.



Exercise


Bring up sentences with ten adjectives of quantity.



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