Introduction
Pronouns: Common Errors - 1
Pronouns: Common Errors - 2
Pronouns: Common Errors - 3
Pronouns: Common Errors - 4
Pronouns: Common Errors - 5
Adjectives: Common Errors - 1
Adjectives: Common Errors - 2
Adjectives: Common Errors - 3
Adjectives: Common Errors - 4
Errors In The Use Of Articles - 1
Errors In The Use Of Articles - 2
Errors In The Use Of Articles - 3
Errors In The Use Of Articles - 4
Errors In The Use Of Articles - 5
Correct Errors Of Usage - 1
Correct Errors Of Usage - 2
Correct Errors Of Usage - 3
Correct Errors Of Usage - 4
Correct Errors Of Usage - 5
Correct Errors Of Usage - 6
Correct Errors Of Usage - 7
Anglicized Words - Number - Gerund - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
[Sidenote: Anglicized words.]
When the foreign words are fully naturalized, they form their plurals
in the regular way; as,--
bandits
cherubs
dogmas
encomiums
enigmas
focuses
formulas
geniuses
herbariums
indexes
seraphs
apexes
[Sidenote: Usage varies in plurals of letters, figures, etc.]
54. Letters, figures, etc., form their plurals by adding _-s_ or
_'s_. Words quoted merely as words, without reference to their
meaning, also add _-s_ or _'s_; as, "His _9's_ (or _9s_) look like
_7's_ (or _7s_)," "Avoid using too many _and's_ (or _ands_)," "Change
the _+'s_ (or _+s_) to _-'s_ (or _-s_)."
Exercise - Number - Gerund - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
Exercise:
_______________________________________________________
Find in the dictionary the plurals of these words:--
I. FROM THE LATIN.
apparatus
appendix
axis
datum
erratum
focus
formula
genus
larva
medium
memorandum
nebula
radius
series
species
stratum
terminus
vertex
II. FROM THE GREEK.
analysis
antithesis
automaton
basis
crisis
ellipsis
hypothesis
parenthesis
phenomenon
thesis
Two Methods/Names/Titles - Number - Gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
[Sidenote: Two methods in use for names with titles.]
52. As to plurals of names with titles, there is some disagreement
among English writers. The title may be plural, as _the Messrs.
Allen_, _the Drs. Brown_, _the Misses Rich_; or the name may be
pluralized.
The former is perhaps more common in present-day use, though the
latter is often found; for example,--
Then came Mr. and Mrs. Briggs, and then _the three Miss
Spinneys_, then Silas Peckham.--DR. HOLMES.
Our immortal Fielding was of the younger branch of the _Earls of
Denbigh_, who drew their origin from the _Counts of
Hapsburgh_.--GIBBON.
The _Miss Flamboroughs_ were reckoned the best dancers in the
parish.--GOLDSMITH.
The _Misses Nettengall's_ young ladies come to the Cathedral
too.--DICKENS.
The _Messrs. Harper_ have done the more than generous thing by
Mr. Du Maurier.--_The Critic_.
53. A number of foreign words have been adopted into English
without change of form. These are said to be _domesticated_, and
retain their foreign plurals.
Others have been adopted, and by long use have altered their power so
as to conform to English words. They are then said to be
_naturalized_, or _Anglicized_, or _Englished_.
Domesticated words:-
The domesticated words may retain the original plural. Some of them
have a secondary English plural in _-s_ or _-es_.
Two Classes/Compound Words - Number - Gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
[Sidenote: Two classes of compound words.]
50. Compound words may be divided into two classes:--
(1) _Those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute one
word._ These make the last part plural.
courtyard
dormouse
Englishman
fellow-servant
fisherman
Frenchman
forget-me-not
goosequill
handful
mouthful
cupful
maidservant
pianoforte
stepson
spoonful
titmouse
(2) _Those groups in which the first part is the principal one,
followed by a word or phrase making a modifier._ The chief member adds
_-s_ in the plural.
aid-de-camp
attorney at law
billet-doux
commander in chief
court-martial
cousin-german
father-in-law
knight-errant
hanger-on
NOTE.--Some words ending in _-man_ are not compounds of the English
word _man_, but add _-s_; such as
_talisman_, _firman_, _Brahman_,
_German_, _Norman_, _Mussulman_, _Ottoman_.
51. Some groups pluralize both parts of the group; as
_man singer_,
_manservant_,
_woman servant_,
_woman singer_.
Two Plurals-Gender-Number - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
[Sidenote: two plurals.]
48. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning.
brother--brothers (by blood), brethren (of a society or church).
cloth--cloths (kinds of cloth), clothes (garments).
die--dies (stamps for coins, etc.), dice (for gaming).
fish--fish (collectively), fishes (individuals or kinds).
genius--geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits).
index--indexes (to books), indices (signs in algebra).
pea--peas (separately), pease (collectively).
penny--pennies (separately), pence (collectively).
shot--shot (collective balls), shots (number of times fired).
In speaking of coins, _twopence_, _sixpence_, etc., may add _-s_,
making a double plural, as two _sixpences_.
[Sidenote: One plural, two meanings.]
49. Other words have one plural form with two meanings,--one
corresponding to the singular, the other unlike it.
custom--customs: (1) habits, ways; (2) revenue duties.
letter--letters: (1) the alphabet, or epistles; (2) literature.
number--numbers: (1) figures; (2) poetry, as in the lines,--
I lisped in _numbers_, for the numbers came.--POPE.
Tell me not, in mournful _numbers_.--LONGFELLOW.
_Numbers_ also means issues, or copies, of a periodical.
pain--pains: (1) suffering; (2) care, trouble,
part--parts: (1) divisions; (2) abilities, faculties.
Singular Words - Number - Gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
[Sidenote: Occasionally singular words.]
Sometimes, however, a few of these words have the construction of
singular nouns. Notice the following:--
They cannot get on without each other any more than one blade of
_a scissors_ can cut without the other.--J.L. LAUGHLIN.
A relic which, if I recollect right, he pronounced to have been
_a tongs_.--IRVING.
Besides this, it is furnished with _a forceps_.--GOLDSMITH.
The air,--was it subdued when...the wind was trained only to turn
a windmill, carry off chaff, or work in _a bellows_?--PROF. DANA.
In Early Modern English _thank_ is found.
What _thank_ have ye?--_Bible_
47. Three words were _originally singular_, the present ending _-s_
not being really a plural inflection, but they are regularly construed
as plural: _alms, eaves, riches_.
Means/Politics/Plural - Number- Gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
[Sidenote: Means _plural_.]
Two words, means and politics, _may be plural_ in their
construction with verbs and adjectives:--
Words, by strongly conveying the passions, by _those means_ which
we have already mentioned, fully compensate for their weakness in
other respects.--BURKE.
With great dexterity _these means_ were now applied.--MOTLEY.
By _these means_, I say, riches will accumulate.--GOLDSMITH.
[Sidenote: Politics _plural_.]
Cultivating a feeling that _politics_ are tiresome.--G.W. CURTIS.
The _politics_ in which he took the keenest interest _were
politics_ scarcely deserving of the name.--MACAULAY.
Now I read all the _politics_ that _come_ out.--GOLDSMITH.
46. Some words have no corresponding singular.
aborigines
amends
annals
assets
antipodes
scissors
thanks
spectacles
vespers
victuals
matins
nuptials
oats
obsequies
premises
bellows
billiards
dregs
gallows
tongs
Special Lists-Number-Gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
Special Lists.
43. Material nouns and abstract nouns are always singular. When
such words take a plural ending, they lose their identity, and go over
to other classes (Secs. 15 and 17).
44. Proper nouns are regularly singular, but may be made plural
when we wish to speak of several persons or things bearing the same
name; e.g., _the Washingtons_, _the Americas_.
45. Some words are usually singular, though they are plural in
form. Examples of these are, _optics_, _economics_, _physics_,
_mathematics_, _politics_, and many branches of learning; also _news_,
_pains_ (care), _molasses_, _summons_, _means_: as,--
_Politics_, in its widest extent, is both the science and the art
of government.--_Century Dictionary_.
So live, that when thy _summons comes_, etc.--BRYANT.
It served simply as _a means_ of sight.--PROF. DANA.
Plurals/_s/_es/_ies -Number - Gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
III. Plurals formed by Adding -s or -es.
42. Instead of _-s,_ the ending _-es_ is added--
(1) If a word ends in a letter which cannot add _-s_ and be
pronounced. Such are _box, cross, ditch, glass, lens, quartz_, etc.
[Sidenote: -Es added in certain cases.]
If the word ends in a _sound_ which cannot add _-s_, a new syllable is
made; as, _niche--niches, race--races, house--houses, prize--prizes,
chaise--chaises_, etc.
_-Es_ is also added to a few words ending in -o, though this sound
combines readily with _-s_, and does not make an extra syllable:
_cargo--cargoes, negro--negroes, hero--heroes, volcano--volcanoes_,
etc.
Usage differs somewhat in other words of this class, some adding _-s_,
and some _-es_.
(2) If a word ends in _-y_ preceded by a consonant (the _y_ being then
changed to _i_); e.g., _fancies, allies, daisies, fairies_.
[Sidenote: Words in -ies.]
Formerly, however, these words ended in _-ie_, and the real ending is
therefore _-s_. Notice these from Chaucer (fourteenth century):--
[Sidenote: Their old form.]
The _lilie_ on hir stalke grene.
Of _maladie_ the which he hadde endured.
And these from Spenser (sixteenth century):--
Be well aware, quoth then that _ladie_ milde.
At last fair Hesperus in highest _skie_
Had spent his lampe.
(3) In the case of some words ending in -_f_ or -_fe_, which have
the plural in _-ves_: _calf_--_calves_, _half_--_halves_,
_knife_--_knives_, _shelf_--_shelves_, etc.
Plurals/Vowel Change -Number-Gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
II. Plurals formed by Vowel Change.
40. Examples of this inflection are,--
man--men
foot--feet
goose--geese
louse--lice
mouse--mice
tooth--teeth
Some other words--as _book_, _turf_, _wight_, _borough_--formerly had
the same inflection, but they now add the ending _-s_.
41. Akin to this class are some words, originally neuter, that have
the singular and plural alike; such as _deer_, _sheep_, _swine_, etc.
Other words following the same usage are, _pair_, _brace_, _dozen_,
after numerals (if not after numerals, or if preceded by the
prepositions _in_, _by_, etc, they add _-s_): also _trout_, _salmon_;
_head_, _sail_; _cannon_; _heathen_, _folk_, _people_.
The words _horse_ and _foot_, when they mean soldiery, retain the
same form for plural meaning; as,--
The _foot_ are fourscore thousand,
The _horse_ are thousands ten.
--MACAULAY.
Lee marched over the mountain wall,--
Over the mountains winding down,
_Horse_ and _foot_, into Frederick town.
--WHITTIER.
Plurals-Suffixes-Number - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
I. Plurals formed by the Suffix -en.
[Sidenote: The_ -en _inflection.]
38. This inflection remains only in the word oxen, though it was
quite common in Old and Middle English; for instance, _eyen_ (eyes),
_treen_ (trees), _shoon_ (shoes), which last is still used in Lowland
Scotch. _Hosen_ is found in the King James version of the Bible, and
_housen_ is still common in the provincial speech in England.
39. But other words were inflected afterwards, in imitation of the
old words in _-en_ by making a double plural.
[Sidenote: En _inflection imitated by other words._
Brethren has passed through three stages. The old plural was
_brothru_, then _brothre_ or _brethre_, finally _brethren_. The
weakening of inflections led to this addition.
Children has passed through the same history, though the
intermediate form _childer_ lasted till the seventeenth century in
literary English, and is still found in dialects; as,--
"God bless me! so then, after all, you'll have a chance to see
your _childer_ get up like, and get settled."--QUOTED BY DE
QUINCEY.
Kine is another double plural, but has now no singular.
In spite of wandering _kine_ and other adverse
circumstance.--THOREAU.
Number - Gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
NUMBER:
[Sidenote: Definition.]
35. In nouns, number means the mode of indicating whether we are
speaking of one thing or of more than one.
36. Our language has two numbers,--_singular_ and _plural_. The
singular number denotes that one thing is spoken of; the plural, more
than one.
37. There are three ways of changing the singular form to the
plural:--
(1) By adding _-en_.
(2) By changing the root vowel.
(3) By adding _-s_ (or _-es_).
The first two methods prevailed, together with the third, in Old
English, but in modern English _-s_ or _-es_ has come to be the
"standard" ending; that is, whenever we adopt a new word, we make its
plural by adding _-s_ or _-es._
Personification - Gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
34. Just as abstract ideas are personified (Sec. 16), material
objects may be spoken of like gender nouns; for example,--
"Now, where the swift _Rhone_ cleaves _his_ way."--BYRON.
The _Sun_ now rose upon the right:
Out of the sea came _he_.
--COLERIDGE.
And haply the _Queen Moon_ is on _her_ throne,
Clustered around by all her starry Fays.
--KEATS,
_Britannia_ needs no bulwarks,
No towers along the steep;
_Her_ march is o'er the mountain waves,
_Her_ home is on the deep.
--CAMPBELL
This is not exclusively a poetic use. In ordinary speech
personification is very frequent: the pilot speaks of his boat as
feminine; the engineer speaks so of his engine; etc.
[Sidenote: Effect of personification.]
In such cases the gender is marked by the pronoun, and not by the form
of the noun. But the fact that in English the distinction of gender is
confined to difference of sex makes these departures more effective.
Different Words - Gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
III. Gender shown by Different Words.
32. In some of these pairs, the feminine and the masculine are
entirely different words; others have in their origin the same root.
Some of them have an interesting history, and will be noted below:--
bachelor--maid
boy--girl
brother--sister
drake--duck
earl--countess
father--mother
gander--goose
hart--roe
horse--mare
husband--wife
king--queen
lord--lady
wizard--witch
nephew--niece
ram--ewe
sir--madam
son--daughter
uncle--aunt
bull--cow
boar--sow
Girl originally meant a child of either sex, and was used for male
or female until about the fifteenth century.
Drake is peculiar in that it is formed from a corresponding feminine
which is no longer used. It is not connected historically with our
word _duck_, but is derived from _ened_ (duck) and an obsolete suffix
_rake_ (king). Three letters of _ened_ have fallen away, leaving our
word _drake_.
Gander and goose were originally from the same root word. _Goose_
has various cognate forms in the languages akin to English (German
_Gans_, Icelandic _gás_, Danish _gaas_, etc.). The masculine was
formed by adding _-a_, the old sign of the masculine. This _gansa_ was
modified into _gan-ra_, _gand-ra_, finally _gander_; the _d_ being
inserted to make pronunciation easy, as in many other words.
Mare, in Old English _mere_, had the masculine _mearh_ (horse), but
this has long been obsolete.
Husband and wife are not connected in origin. _Husband_ is a
Scandinavian word (Anglo-Saxon _husbonda_ from Icelandic _hús-bóndi_,
probably meaning house dweller); _wife_ was used in Old and Middle
English to mean woman in general.
King and queen are said by some (Skeat, among others) to be from
the same root word, but the German etymologist Kluge says they are
not.
Lord is said to be a worn-down form of the Old English _hlaf-weard_
(loaf keeper), written _loverd_, _lhauerd_, or _lauerd_ in Middle
English. Lady is from _hlœ¯¯fdige_ (_hlœ¯¯f_ meaning loaf, and
_dige_ being of uncertain origin and meaning).
Witch is the Old English _wicce_, but wizard is from the Old
French _guiscart_ (prudent), not immediately connected with _witch_,
though both are ultimately from the same root.
Sir is worn down from the Old French _sire_ (Latin _senior_).
Madam is the French _ma dame_, from Latin _mea domina_.
[Sidenote: Two masculines from feminines.]
33. Besides _gander_ and _drake_, there are two other masculine
words that were formed from the feminine:--
Bridegroom, from Old English _bry¯d-guma_ (bride's man). The _r_ in
_groom_ has crept in from confusion with the word _groom_.
Widower, from the weakening of the ending _-a_ in Old English to
_-e_ in Middle English. The older forms, _widuwa_--_widuwe_, became
identical, and a new masculine ending was therefore added to
distinguish the masculine from the feminine (compare Middle English
_widuer_--_widewe_).
Masculine/Vowel/drop -Gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
[Sidenote: _Masculine ending dropped.]
The masculine ending may be dropped before the feminine _-ess_ is
added; as,--
abbot--abbess
negro--negress
murderer--murderess
sorcerer--sorceress
[Sidenote: Vowel dropped before adding_ -ess.]
The feminine may discard a vowel which appears in the masculine; as
in--
actor--actress
master--mistress
benefactor--benefactress
emperor--empress
tiger--tigress
enchanter--enchantress
_Empress_ has been cut down from _emperice_ (twelfth century) and
_emperesse_ (thirteenth century), from Latin _imperatricem_.
_Master_ and _mistress_ were in Middle English
_maister_--_maistresse_, from the Old French _maistre_--_maistresse_.
31. When the older _-en_ and _-ster_ went out of use as the
distinctive mark of the feminine, the ending _-ess_, from the French
_-esse_, sprang into a popularity much greater than at present.
[Sidenote: Ending_ -ess _less used now than formerly.]
Instead of saying _doctress_, _fosteress_, _wagoness_, as was said in
the sixteenth century, or _servauntesse_, _teacheresse_,
_neighboresse_, _frendesse_, as in the fourteenth century, we have
dispensed with the ending in many cases, and either use a prefix word
or leave the masculine to do work for the feminine also.
Thus, we say _doctor_ (masculine and feminine) or _woman doctor_,
_teacher_ or _lady teacher_, _neighbor_ (masculine and feminine), etc.
We frequently use such words as _author_, _editor_, _chairman_, to
represent persons of either sex.
NOTE:-There is perhaps this distinction observed: when we speak of a
female _as an active agent_ merely, we use the masculine termination,
as, "George Eliot is the _author_ of 'Adam Bede;'" but when we speak
purposely _to denote a distinction from a male_, we use the feminine,
as, "George Eliot is an eminent _authoress_."
Foreign suffixes - Gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
The foreign suffixes are of two kinds:--
[Sidenote: Foreign suffixes. Unaltered and little used.]
(1) Those belonging to borrowed words, as _czarina_, _señorita_,
_executrix_, _donna_. These are attached to foreign words, and are
never used for words recognized as English.
[Sidenote: Slightly changed and widely used.]
(2) That regarded as the standard or regular termination of the
feminine, _-ess_ (French _esse_, Low Latin _issa_), the one most used.
The corresponding masculine may have the ending _-er_ (_-or_), but in
most cases it has not. Whenever we adopt a new masculine word, the
feminine is formed by adding this termination _-ess_.
Sometimes the _-ess_ has been added to a word already feminine by the
ending _-ster_; as _seam-str-ess_, _song-str-ess_. The ending _-ster_
had then lost its force as a feminine suffix; it has none now in the
words _huckster_, _gamester_, _trickster_, _punster_.
[Sidenote: Ending of masculine not changed.]
30. The ending _-ess_ is added to many words without changing the
ending of the masculine; as,--
baron--baroness
count--countess
lion--lioness
Jew--Jewess
heir--heiress
host--hostess
priest--priestess
giant--giantess
Prefixes - Gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
I. Gender shown by Prefixes
[Sidenote: _Very few of class I._]
28. Usually the gender words _he_ and _she_ are prefixed to neuter
words; as _he-goat_--_she-goat_, _cock sparrow_--_hen sparrow_,
_he-bear_--_she-bear_.
One feminine, _woman_, puts a prefix before the masculine _man_.
_Woman_ is a short way of writing _wifeman_.
II. Gender shown by Suffixes.
29. By far the largest number of gender words are those marked by
suffixes. In this particular the native endings have been largely
supplanted by foreign suffixes.
[Sidenote: _Native suffixes._]
The native suffixes to indicate the feminine were _-en_ and _-ster_.
These remain in _vixen_ and _spinster_, though both words have lost
their original meanings.
The word _vixen_ was once used as the feminine of _fox_ by the
Southern-English. For _fox_ they said _vox_; for _from_ they said
_vram_; and for the older word _fat_ they said _vat_, as in _wine
vat_. Hence _vixen_ is for _fyxen_, from the masculine _fox_.
_Spinster_ is a relic of a large class of words that existed in Old
and Middle English,[1] but have now lost their original force as
feminines. The old masculine answering to _spinster_ was _spinner_;
but _spinster_ has now no connection with it.
No "common gender - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
25. According to the definition, there can be no such thing as
"common gender:" words either distinguish sex (or the sex is
distinguished by the context) or else they do not distinguish sex.
If such words as _parent_, _servant_, _teacher_, _ruler_, _relative_,
_cousin_, _domestic_, etc., do not show the sex to which the persons
belong, they are neuter words.
26. Put in convenient form, the division of words according to sex,
or the lack of it, is,--
(MASCULINE: Male beings.
Gender nouns {
(FEMININE: Female beings.
Neuter nouns: Names of inanimate things, or of living beings whose
sex cannot be determined.
27. The inflections for gender belong, of course, only to masculine
and feminine nouns. _Forms_ would be a more accurate word than
_inflections_, since inflection applies only to the _case_ of nouns.
There are three ways to distinguish the genders:--
(1) By prefixing a gender word to another word.
(2) By adding a suffix, generally to a masculine word.
(3) By using a different word for each gender.
Gender nouns. Neuter nouns - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
23. It is evident from this that English can have but two
genders,--masculine and feminine.
[Sidenote: Gender nouns. Neuter nouns.]
All nouns, then, must be divided into two principal classes,--gender
nouns, those distinguishing the sex of the object; and neuter
nouns, those which do not distinguish sex, or names of things without
life, and consequently without sex.
Gender nouns include names of persons and some names of animals;
neuter nouns include some animals and all inanimate objects.
[Sidenote: Some words either gender or neuter nouns, according to
use.]
24. Some words may be either gender nouns or neuter nouns, according
to their use. Thus, the word _child_ is neuter in the sentence, "A
little _child_ shall lead them," but is masculine in the sentence
from Wordsworth,--
I have seen
A curious _child_ ... applying to _his_ ear
The convolutions of a smooth-lipped shell.
Of animals, those with which man comes in contact often, or which
arouse his interest most, are named by gender nouns, as in these
sentences:--
Before the barn door strutted the gallant _cock_, that pattern of
a husband, ... clapping _his_ burnished wings.--IRVING.
_Gunpowder_ ... came to a stand just by the bridge, with a
suddenness that had nearly sent _his_ rider sprawling over _his_
head--_id._
Other animals are not distinguished as to sex, but are spoken of as
neuter, the sex being of no consequence.
Not a _turkey_ but he [Ichabod] beheld daintily trussed up, with
_its_ gizzard under _its_ wing.--IRVING.
He next stooped down to feel the _pig_, if there were any signs
of life in _it_.--LAMB.
Gender - Inflections Of Nouns -Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
GENDER
[Sidenote: What gender means in English. It is founded on sex.]
21. In Latin, Greek, German, and many other languages, some general
rules are given that names of male beings are usually masculine, and
names of females are usually feminine. There are exceptions even to
this general statement, but not so in English. Male beings are, in
English grammar, always masculine; female, always feminine.
When, however, _inanimate_ things are spoken of, these languages are
totally unlike our own in determining the gender of words. For
instance: in Latin, _hortus_ (garden) is masculine, _mensa_ (table) is
feminine, _corpus_ (body) is neuter; in German, _das Messer_ (knife)
is neuter, _der Tisch_ (table) is masculine, _die Gabel_ (fork) is
feminine.
The great difference is, that in English the gender follows the
_meaning_ of the word, in other languages gender follows the _form_;
that is, in English, gender depends on _sex_: if a thing spoken of is
of the male sex, the _name_ of it is masculine; if of the female sex,
the _name_ of it is feminine. Hence:
[Sidenote: Definition.]
22. Gender is the mode of distinguishing sex by words, or
additions to words.
Exercise - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
Pick out the nouns in the following sentences, and tell to which class
each belongs. Notice if any have shifted from one class to another.
1. Hope springs eternal in the human breast.
2. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of Fate.
3. Stone walls do not a prison make.
Nor iron bars a cage.
4. Truth-teller was our England's Alfred named.
5. A great deal of talent is lost to the world for want of a little
courage.
6. Power laid his rod aside,
And Ceremony doff'd her pride.
7. She sweeps it through the court with troops of ladies.
8. Learning, that cobweb of the brain.
9. A little weeping would ease my heart;
But in their briny bed
My tears must stop, for every drop
Hinders needle and thread.
10. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves something for
hereafter.
11. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much; Wisdom is humble
that he knows no more.
12. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast.
13. And see, he cried, the welcome,
Fair guests, that waits you here.
14. The fleet, shattered and disabled, returned to Spain.
15. One To-day is worth two To-morrows.
16. Vessels carrying coal are constantly moving.
17. Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest,
Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood.
18. And oft we trod a waste of pearly sands.
19. A man he seems of cheerful yesterdays
And confident to-morrows.
20. The hours glide by; the silver moon is gone.
21. Her robes of silk and velvet came from over the sea.
22. My soldier cousin was once only a drummer boy.
23. But pleasures are like poppies spread,
You seize the flower, its bloom is shed.
24. All that thou canst call thine own Lies in thy To-day.
Caution - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
20. It is to be remembered, however, that the above cases are
shiftings of the _use_, of words rather than of their _meaning_. We
seldom find instances of complete conversion of one part of speech
into another.
When, in a sentence above, the terms _the great_, _the wealthy_, are
used, they are not names only: we have in mind the idea of persons and
the quality of being _great_ or _wealthy_. The words are used in the
sentence where nouns are used, but have an adjectival meaning.
In the other sentences, _why_ and _wherefore_, _When_, _Now_, and
_Then_, are spoken of as if pure nouns; but still the reader considers
this not a natural application of them as name words, but as a figure
of speech.
NOTE.--These remarks do not apply, of course, to such words as become
pure nouns by use. There are many of these. The adjective _good_ has
no claim on the noun _goods_; so, too, in speaking of the _principal_
of a school, or a state _secret_, or a faithful _domestic_, or a
_criminal_, etc., the words are entirely independent of any adjective
force.
Words And Word Groups Used As Nouns - - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
The noun may borrow from any part of speech, or from any
expression:-
19. Owing to the scarcity of distinctive forms, and to the
consequent flexibility of English speech, words which are usually
other parts of speech are often used as nouns; and various word groups
may take the place of nouns by being used as nouns.
Adjectives, Conjunctions, Adverbs:-
(1) _Other parts of speech_ used as nouns:--
_The great_, _the wealthy_, fear thy blow.--BURNS.
Every _why_ hath a _wherefore_.--SHAKESPEARE.
When I was young? Ah, woeful _When_!
Ah! for the change 'twixt _Now_ and _Then_!
--COLERIDGE.
(2) _Certain word groups_ used like single nouns:--
_Too swift_ arrives as tardy as _too slow_.--SHAKESPEARE.
Then comes the "_Why, sir_!" and the "_What then, sir_?" and the
"_No, sir_!" and the "_You don't see your way through the
question, sir_!"--MACAULAY
(3) Any part of speech may be considered merely as a word, without
reference to its function in the sentence; also titles of books are
treated as simple nouns.
The _it_, at the beginning, is ambiguous, whether it mean the sun
or the cold.--Dr BLAIR
In this definition, is the word "_just_," or "_legal_," finally
to stand?--RUSKIN.
There was also a book of Defoe's called an "_Essay on Projects_,"
and another of Dr. Mather's called "_Essays to do Good_."--B.
FRANKLIN.
By ellipses, nouns used to modify
18. Nouns used as descriptive terms. Sometimes a noun is attached
to another noun to add to its meaning, or describe it; for example, "a
_family_ quarrel," "a _New York_ bank," "the _State Bank Tax_ bill,"
"a _morning_ walk."
It is evident that these approach very near to the function of
adjectives. But it is better to consider them as nouns, for these
reasons: they do not give up their identity as nouns; they do not
express quality; they cannot be compared, as descriptive adjectives
are.
They are more like the possessive noun, which belongs to another word,
but is still a noun. They may be regarded as elliptical expressions,
meaning a walk _in the morning_, a bank _in New York_, a bill _as to
tax on the banks_, etc.
NOTE.--If the descriptive word be a _material_ noun, it may be
regarded as changed to an adjective. The term "_gold_ pen" conveys the
same idea as "_golden_ pen," which contains a pure adjective.
A halfway class of words. Class nouns in use, abstract in meaning - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
17. Abstract nouns are made half abstract by being spoken of in
the plural.
They are not then pure abstract nouns, nor are they common class
nouns. For example, examine this:--
The _arts_ differ from the _sciences_ in this, that their power
is founded not merely on _facts_ which can be communicated, but
on _dispositions_ which require to be created.--RUSKIN.
When it is said that _art_ differs from _science_, that the power of
art is founded on _fact_, that _disposition_ is the thing to be
created, the words italicized are pure abstract nouns; but in case _an
art_ or _a science_, or _the arts_ and _sciences_, be spoken of, the
abstract idea is partly lost. The words preceded by the article _a_,
or made plural, are still names of abstract ideas, not material
things; but they widen the application to separate kinds of _art_ or
different branches of _science_. They are neither class nouns nor pure
abstract nouns: they are more properly called _half abstract_.
Test this in the following sentences:--
Let us, if we must have great _actions_, make our own
so.--EMERSON.
And still, as each repeated _pleasure_ tired, Succeeding _sports_
the mirthful band inspired.--GOLDSMITH.
But ah! those _pleasures_, _loves_, and _joys_
Which I too keenly taste,
The Solitary can despise.--BURNS.
All these, however, were mere _terrors_ of the night.--IRVING.
Personification of abstract ideas - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
16. Abstract nouns are frequently used as proper names by being
personified; that is, the ideas are spoken of as residing in living
beings. This is a poetic usage, though not confined to verse.
Next _Anger_ rushed; his eyes, on fire,
In lightnings owned his secret stings.--COLLINS.
_Freedom's_ fame finds wings on every wind.--BYRON.
_Death_, his mask melting like a nightmare dream, smiled.--HAYNE.
_Traffic_ has lain down to rest; and only _Vice_ and _Misery_, to
prowl or to moan like night birds, are abroad.--CARLYLE.
Names for things in bulk altered for separate portions - Noun-Parts Of Speech-ESL/Learn English Grammar
15. Material nouns may be used as class names. Instead of
considering the whole body of material of which certain uses are made,
one can speak of particular uses or phases of the substance; as--
(1) _Of individual objects_ made from metals or other substances
capable of being wrought into various shapes. We know a number of
objects made of iron. The material _iron_ embraces the metal contained
in them all; but we may say, "The cook made the _irons_ hot,"
referring to flat-irons; or, "The sailor was put in _irons_" meaning
chains of iron. So also we may speak of _a glass_ to drink from or to
look into; _a steel_ to whet a knife on; _a rubber_ for erasing marks;
and so on.
(2) _Of classes_ or _kinds_ of the same substance. These are the same
in material, but differ in strength, purity, etc. Hence it shortens
speech to make the nouns plural, and say _teas_, _tobaccos_, _paints_,
_oils_, _candies_, _clays_, _coals_.
(3) _By poetical use_, of certain words necessarily singular in idea,
which are made plural, or used as class nouns, as in the following:--
The lone and level _sands_ stretch far away.--SHELLEY.
From all around--
Earth and her _waters_, and the depths of air--
Comes a still voice.--BRYANT.
Their airy ears
_The winds_ have stationed on the mountain peaks.
--PERCIVAL.
(4) _Of detached portions_ of matter used as class names; as _stones_,
_slates_, _papers_, _tins_, _clouds_, _mists_, etc.
Hello Friends ! Please send your requests,comments,suggestions to improve this blog.
Word of the Day
Word of the Day
provided by The Free Dictionary
Article of the Day
Article of the Day
provided by The Free Dictionary
This Day in History
This Day in History
provided by The Free Dictionary
Today's Birthday
Today's Birthday
provided by The Free Dictionary
In the News
In the News
provided by The Free Dictionary
Quote of the Day
Quote of the Day
provided by The Free Library
Match Up
Match Up
provided by The Free Dictionary
