PRONOUNS : FORMS AND USES

1. Personal Pronouns:-The Personal pronouns have different forms according to number, gender and case.

In the first person there is no difference in gender. The various forms are, therefore, as follows:-

Singular Plural

Nominative I we

Possessive my, mine our, ours

Accusative & Dative me us

In the second person also there is no difference in gender. The various forms are:-

Singular Plural

Nominative your you

Possessive your(yours) Your(yours)

Accusative & Dative you you

In the third person the various forms are:-

Singular

Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nominative he she it

Possessive his(his) her(hers) its(its)

Accusative & Dative him her it

Plural

Masculine Feminine Neuter

They they they

Their(theirs) their(theirs) their(theirs)

Them them them

The passive forms my, our, your, his, her, its and their are used as adjectives and are known as Possessive Adjectives.

1) This is my bicycle.

The corresponding forms mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its and theirs have the function of pronouns. They serve as the subject of a sentence or the object of a verb or preposition.

1) Yours is a fine effort.

2) As he had no book she borrowed his.

3) Let us compare our experiences with theirs.

(Please note that there is no apostrophe in the forms our, yours, his, hers, its and theirs)

2. Reflexive and Emphatic Pronouns:- A Reflexive pronoun should not be used in the place of a regular personal pronoun. Further, an Emphatic pronoun does not stand alone.

Correct Incorrect

I shall come. Myself shall come.

You yourself said so. Yourself said so.

3. Interrogative Pronouns:- Who and its different forms refer to persons, what refers to things and which to both.

e.g., 1) Who has written this letter?

2) What is the substance?

3) Which is your brother?

4) Which town is that?

‘What’ can be applied to a person to refer to his profession.

e.g., What is your brother?

He is a doctor.

4. Reciprocal Pronouns:- Each other is used of only two persons while one another is used of more than two.

e.g., 1) The two brothers are fond of each other.

2) The three sisters are fond of one another.

5. Relative Pronouns:- Who, whose and whom are used mainly when the antecedent refers to a person.

e.g., 1) I mislaid the book which I had brought.

2) The dog which you saw is mine.

That is used when the antecedent refers to a person or a thing, but its use is limited. It is preferred after a superlative,

e.g., This is the best film that I have seen.

After the words all, nobody, no one, someone, anybody, etc., it is correct to use that or who when it refers to persons.

e.g., All that/who saw him were impressed by his dignity.

When it refers to things, that is preferred to which, after, all, much, little, none, etc.

1) I understood little that was said.

2) He has forgotten all that he heard.

PRONOUNS

Introduction:-

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. The Noun for which a pronoun stands is called its Antecedent.

Gulshan was successful because he worked hard.

Here the pronoun is he and its antecedent is Gulshan.

Pronouns may be divided into nine classes. (1) Personal, (2) Reflexive, (3) Emphatic, (4) Demonstrative, (5) Indefinite, (6) Interrogative, (7) Distributive, (8) Reciprocal, (9) Relative.

1. Personal Pronouns:-

The seven pronouns I, We, You, He, She, It, and they and their different forms are known as Personal Pronouns because they refer to distinctions based on person. This means the distinction between the speaker, i.e., First Person (I, We); the person spoken to, i.e., Second Person (You), and anyone or anything else i.e., Third Person (He, She, It, They).

2. Reflexive Pronouns:-

The pronouns myself, ourselves, yourselves, yourself, himself, herself, itself and themselves are called Reflexive Pronouns because they reflect the action of the verb on the subject itself,

e.g., The drunkard ruined himself.

3. Emphatic Pronouns:-

Emphatic pronouns are pronouns used for the sake of emphasis,

e.g., The little boy opened the door himself.

Note:- that, the reflexive and emphatic forms are the same, but their functions are different.

4. Demonstrative Pronouns:-

Demonstrative Pronouns point out the things or persons for which they stand. The four pronouns of this kind are this, these, that and those.

e.g., This is my wife.

These are my children.

5. Indefinite Pronouns:-

Indefinite Pronouns refer to persons or things in a vague, general manner. Words like all, some, many, and everyone belong to this class.

1) Anybody can do it.

2) Some were lucky and came back from the expedition.

6. Interrogative Pronouns:-

Interrogative Pronouns are used to ask questions.

e.g., 1) What is the price of this book?

2) Who is ready to come with me?

7. Distributive Pronouns:-

Distributive Pronouns refer to persons or things one at a time,

e.g., 1) Each of the pictures was beautiful.

2) Neither of the two brothers was present.

8. Reciprocal Pronouns:-

Reciprocal Pronouns express a mutual or reciprocal relationship.

e.g., 1) Don’t they like one another?

2) John and David admired each other.

9. Relative Pronouns:-

Relative Pronouns relate or refer to a noun that has gone before. In other words, a relative pronoun introduces an adjectival clause and relates or links it to its antecedent. The important forms of this category are who, whom, whose, that and which.

1) This is the boy who drew the picture.

2) I have got a book which is very old.

COMMON ERRORS : INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION:-

As Prof. Michael Swan puts it, “English, like all languages, is full of problems for the foreign learner”. Some of these problems are easy to explain. Other problems are more tricky.

An exhaustive list of common mistakes, followed by relevant reasons for correction, are given. It served as an analysis of the error most commonly made in spoken and written English. It also presents clear explanations of how to correct these errors. Most of the terminology used here is traditional, so that the task of the student should not be made more difficult by the introduction of new grammatical terms which would need a lot of explanation. Our explanations are based on British usage.

These notes will be of immense value to the students appearing for the various public examinations including those conducted by the various universities, Banks, the UPSC and the State Services. “In attempting to master standards of usage, one should begin with the realization that one is engaging in a fascinating study”, writes Prof. T. S. Berry in his book, “The Most Common Mistakes in English Usage.” In studying canons of usage, one should also recognise, of course, the far-reading utility involved. We must respect principles of usage in order to move effectively in any circle where correct language is a requisite. Finally, it should be realized that rules for usage are necessary to maintain the uniformity of meaning that language has had across the years. Guidelines for usage are usually one of society’s most important safeguards.

We are aware of the fact that a living language like English is always in a state of flux. What is a common error today may not be in the list of errors after a decade. “By the mere law of numbers, errors committed by a bulk of the population are apt to be admitted into elite circles, and into dictionaries in due course”. So, One should be in constant touch with the latest trends in English. Here as attempt has been made to show long established grammatical rules coming under pressure from the current usage of educated speakers of English. The explanatory matter has been made as concise and simple as possible.

For a systematically organized account of the whole of English grammar, learners are advised to consult books such as:

(1) A University Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum,

(2) Current English Usage by F.T. Wood,

(3) A Remedial English Grammar for Foreign Students by F.T. Wood,

(4) A Practical English Grammar by Thomson and Martinet,

(5) Practical English Usage by Michael Swan, and

(6) A Guide to Correct English by L. L. Hill.

For a detailed treatment of English Vocabulary, see the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, or the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.

Correct Errors Of Usage - 7

1. He is superior than John. (W)

He is superior to John. (R)

Note:- Superior is normally followed by to, not than.

2 (i). She dresses very slovenly. (W)

She is slovenly in her dress. (R)

She dresses in a very slovenly manner. (R)

(ii). He did his work very slovenly. (W)

He did very slovenly work. (R)

He did his work in a very slovenly manner. (R)

Note:- Slovenly is an adjective. But for the adverb a phrase “in a slovenly manner” must be used.

3. He ate scarce a crumb. (W)

He ate scarcely a crumb. (R)

Note:- Scarce as an adverb is now archaic. Use scarcely.

He escaped without scarcely a scratch. (W)

He escaped with scarcely a scratch. (R )

Note:- “Without scarcely” is a double negative. The alternatives are “Without a scratch” and “With scarcely a scratch”.

4. It is three years since I have seen him. (W)

It is three years since I saw him. (R)

Note:- If since introduces a clause, then the verb of this clause must normally be in the past tense.

It is ten years, ago since my brother left for America. (W)

It is ten years, since my brother left for America. (R)

Note:- Remove ago. “Since” and “ago” cannot be combined.

5. All the old typewriters are being substituted by new ones. (W)

All the old typewriters are being replaced by new ones. (R)

Note:- A substitute is something that takes the place of another thing. The verb therefore means “to put in place of”. “New ones are being substituted for the old” may be also correct.

6. He gave up general practice and went into hospital work, with a view ultimately to become a consultant. (W)

He gave up general practice and went into hospital work, with a view to ultimately becoming a consultant. (R)

Note:- The correct construction is “with a view to + noun or gerund.

7. There was no one but who condemned his action. (W)

There was no one but condemned his action. (R)

Note:- Omit who. In such sentences but is itself equivalent in meaning to “Who . . . not”; “but condemned” means “who did not condemn.”

8. The writer has refrained from the temptation to condemn merely on moral grounds. (W)

The writer has resisted from the temptation to condemn merely on moral grounds. (R)

Note:- Use resisted. Refrain from can be followed only by:-

(i). A gerund in the active voice

(refrain from doing something)

(ii). A noun with an active sense

(refrain from theft, from crime etc.)

It cannot take a noun, like temptation, which is passive in sense.

We refrain from doing something which we are tempted to do.

We resist the temptation to do it.

Special Note:- You are advised to go through the common errors and the reasons for correction given in the coming articles.

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Correct Errors Of Usage - 6

1.I cannot afford to pay that much for it. (W)

I cannot afford to pay so much for it. (R)

Note:- Use “so much” or “so much as that”.

2. A number of people was left behind. (W)

A number of people were left behind. (R)

Note:- “A number of “ means many. It is plural in sense and takes a plural verb. The same applies to “a large number of”, “a small number of”. “The number of” is a mathematical or numerical figure. It is singular.

e. g:- “The number of people who own cars is increasing every year.” Correct.

3. He borrowed a shilling off me. (W)

He borrowed a shilling from me. (R)

Note:- Of in such sentences may be a mistake for the older “borrow something of someone”, now archaic.

4. One should always make sure of his facts. (W)

One should always make sure of one’s facts. (R)

Note:- One is a generalising personal pronoun. If the reference is to the same person, one must be followed up by “one, one’s, oneself”, not by “he, him, himself”, since one is general, where he is specific.

5. The River Medway has overflown its banks near Ton bridge. (W)

The River Medway has overflowed its banks near Ton bridge. (R)

Note:- Here wrong verb is used – Overfly. Overflow – overflowed – overflowed

(i) Birds fly. (ii) Water flows.

6. Over fifty children will partake in the operation. (W)

Over fifty children will take part in the operation. (R)

Note:- Partake of a meal; take part in a dramatic performance, a concert etc.

7. The letter was written partially in French and partially in English. (W)

The letter was written partly in French and partly in English. (R)

Note:- Use “partly” in the place of “partially”. Partially is an adverb of degree, and is opposed to fully:

“The meat was only partially cooked”. Correct.

(partly = as regards one part)

8 (i) I prefer coffee than tea. (W)

I prefer coffee to tea. (R)

(ii) She preferred sewing than knitting. (W)

She preferred sewing to knitting. (R)

(iii) We prefer going by car than travelling by train. (W)

We prefer going by car to travelling by train. (R)

Note:- Prefer is normally followed by to, not than.

(iv) Which do you prefer most? (W)

Which do you prefer? (R)

Note:- Literally, prefer means “place before the others”. It is therefore an absolute term and cannot be modified by more or most. Avoid most here.

Correct Errors Of Usage - 5

Hello Everybody
1. Every person brought their lunch with them. (W)

Every person brought his lunch with him. (R)

Everyone/everybody promised they would keep their word. (W)

Everyone/everybody promised he would keep his word. (R)

Note:- The words ‘every’, everyone’, everybody and everything” are singular. They therefore take a singular verb and must be referred to by singular pronouns and singular possessive adjectives.

In “tag” questions, however, the plural is permissible for “everyone” and “everybody”. When the statement that precedes it has a collective rather than a distributive sense:

e. g: “Everybody can’t be clever, can they?” Correct.

“Everyone present made a wild rush for the door, didn’t they?” Correct.

“Everything has gone wrong today, hasn’t it?” Correct.

Note:- The tag for everything must always be singular.

2. This summer the fine days have been few and far between. Correct.

Now-a-days well qualified science teachers are few and far between. (W)

Now- a- days well qualified science teachers are few. (R)

Note:- “Few and far between” is a meaningless cliché. “Few” above is all that is needed.

3. The scheme has now been finalised. (W)

The scheme has now been completed. (R) (or)

The scheme has now been put into its final form. (R)

Note:- “Finalise” is an ugly word, un-English, and quite unnecessary. Hence the correction.

4. You are kindly requested to close the door behind you. (W)

Kindly close the door behind you. (R) (or)

Please close the door behind you. (R)

Note:- The request is not kind, though compliance with it would be. So, the correct sentences given here are shorter, more courteous and grammatical.

5. She laid down. (W)

She lay down. (R)

Note:- See under Lay, Lie in the coming posts.

6. He has loaned me his typewriter. (W)

He has lent me his typewriter. (R)

This book has been loaned to me by a friend. (W)

Note:- Loan is a noun; the verb is lend. Do not say loaned.

7. He has done the work in a masterful fashion. (W)

He has done the work in a masterly fashion. (R)

Note:- Here “masterly” is required. “Masterly” means “skilful, in the manner of one who is a master of his craft”. Thus “a masterly piece of work”, “a masterly stroke”, “a masterly explosion of subject”, but “a masterful child”. “Masterful” means “assertive, strong-willed, determined to be master”.

8. May be I shall go, and may be I shall not. (W)

Perhaps I shall go, and perhaps I shall not. (R)

Note:- Maybe written as one word and used as a synonym for perhaps, is not a recognised English idiom. Use perhaps.

One the other hand “It maybe” (two words followed by a noun clause is quite good English.

“It maybe that our letter never reached him.” Correct.

Correct Errors Of Usage - 4

1. The delegation was comprised of the following persons. (W)

The delegation comprised the following persons. (R) (or)

The delegation was composed of the following persons. (R )

Note: - is/ was/ will be comprised of is always wrong.

2. An illiterate person is one who can neither read or write. (W)

An illiterate person is one who can neither read nor write. (R)

Note:- “Neither” must be followed by nor, not by or. Correlatives are pairs of

conjunctions of conjunctive expressions which always go together, like either . . or,

both . . and, not only . . but also.

3. We shall have to hurry, else we shall miss the train. (W)

We shall have to hurry, or else we shall miss the train. (R)

Note:- Else is an adverb, not a coordination conjunction. In sentences of this type

“or else” or simply “or” must be used.

4. We shall be pleased to furnish you any information you may require. (W)

We shall be pleased to supply you with any information you may require. (R)

Note:- This is unidiomatic. “To furnish” does not take an indirect object.

We ‘furnish a person’ ‘with’ ‘something’. But in any case ‘furnish’ is the wrong verb here.

Use “supply you with” or “send you” or “give you”.

5. The children each has a special task allotted to them. (W)

The children each have a special task allotted to them. (R )

Note:- (i) When used as an adjective, each is singular; the noun it qualifies must

therefore be referred to by a singular pronoun or possessive adjective, and when it is

subject it takes a singular verb:

“Each person has a special seat allocated to him, hasn’t he? Correct.

(ii)When it is a pronoun, it is always singular if it has no antecedent:

“Each has his own ideas on the subject”. Correct.

But if it refers back to an antecedent, it may be either singular or plural, according to

circumstances, viz:


a) When the antecedent is plural, each is also plural. For example, the

sentence given sbove, “The children each . . to them”.


b) When the antecedent consists of two or more singular nouns which

each individualises, the verb is usually plural:

“My wife and I each subscribe a rupee a month.” Correct.

c) When the antecedent consists of two plural nouns; each of which is

referred to separately and individually, then each is plural:

“The French and the Germans each claim the territory”. Correct.

i) When each is used in a partitive sense (each of us/ you/ them/ the

passengers, etc.) special care must be taken:

Each of the men has been given his instructions. Correct.

Each of the successful candidates was presented with a certificate. Correct.

We each have our problems, haven’t we? Correct.

6. Except for your help we should have been in a difficult position. (W)

But for your help we should have been in a difficult position (R)

Note:- Here the word required is either “but for” or “without”.

Correct Errors Of Usage - 3

1. I am averse to gamble. (W)
I am averse to gambling. (R )

Note: Averse is followed by the preposition to. The only part of the verb that can follow averse is gerund.

2. Back of the house was a small garden. (W)

At the back of the house was a small garden. (R)

Note: Back of means behind. “Back of the house was a small garden” is an Americanism. It is not accepted as British English. The correct expression is - “at the back of or behind”.

3. Everything bar the clock was silent. (W)

Everything except the clock was silent. (R)

Note: Use except or but in the place of bar.

4. Much of the delay is due to inefficiency and bad organization on behalf of the railways. (W)

Much of the delay is due to inefficiency and bad organization on the part of the railways. (R)

Note: Being as is a solecism and a vulgarism. The idiomatic alternatives are:

i) Being strangers,

ii) As we were strangers.

5. He blamed it on to me. (W)

He blamed me for it. (R) (or)

He put blame on me. (R)

Note: “He blamed it on to me” is acceptable colloquially. But in writing and in more formal speech, say the correct sentences given above.

6. He is capable to do it. (W)

He is capable of doing it. (R )

Note: The correct expression is “capable of doing” or “incapable of doing”.

7. We shall do our best to find out the cause for the delay. (W)

We shall do our best to find out the cause of the delay. (R )

Note: For for substitute of. Cause is followed by for only when it means ground or justification.

e.g: There is no cause for alarm.

You have no cause for complaint.

8. The baby was left in charge of a neighbour. (W)

The baby was left in the charge of a neighbour. (R)

Note: It was the neighbour who was in charge of the baby; the baby was left in the charge of the neighbour. “In charge of” means “having care of , or authority over”. “In the charge of” means “subject to the care, control or authority of”.

Correct Errors Of Usage - 2

1. She sold her diamond ring, also a pearl necklace. (W)

She sold her diamond ring and also a pearl necklace. (R)

Note:”Also” is an adverb, not a conjunction. So, it should not be used at the beginning of a sentence , or of a clause, after a comma, to coordinate two nouns, unless it is preceded by and or but.

2. 2. London is more densely populated than any city in the world. (W)

London is more densely populated than any other city in the world. (R)

Note: This is an example of a very frequent mistake. “Any city in the world” includes London. Hence, “any other city in the world” is correct.

3. 3. He spent the whole afternoon sitting around doing nothing. (W)

He spent the whole afternoon sitting about doing nothing. (R)

Note: This use of around is an Americanism. It is to be deprecated in British English. Use about.

4. 4. The mother, as well as her three children, were taken to hospital. (W)

The mother, as well as her three children, was taken to the hospital. (R)

Note: As well as does not coordinate the two nouns; it introduces a parenthesis. Therefore a singular verb is required. The subject is the mother. Use the verb was.

He spent all his money, as well as wasted his time. (W)

He spent all his money, as well as wasting his time. (R)

Note: If the first verb is a simple tense form, then as well as must be followed by a gerund, as can be seen if we imagine it transferred to the beginning of the sentence.

5. A) The opportunity was not availed of. (W)

I could not avail myself of this opportunity. (R)

(B) I am sorry that your kind offer cannot be availed of. (W)

I am sorry that I cannot avail myself of your kind offer. (R)

Note: As a verb, avail cannot be used in the passive voice.

Notice: The Idioms Used Correctly:-

1. All his efforts were of no avail. (Adjectival)

2. He made repeated attempts, but to no avail. (Adverbially)

Note: As a verb, avail is used intransitively.

e.g: All his efforts did not avail. (Correct)

Note: As a verb, it can be also used with a reflexive object followed by of.

e.g: You should avail yourself of this opportunity. (Correct)

I shall avail myself of your offer. (Correct)

Correct Errors Of Usage - 1

1. You must accustom yourself to get up early. (Wrong)

You must accustom yourself to getting up early. (Right )

Reasons for Correction: As a verb, accustom is followed by a gerund, not an infinitive.

2. He is addicted to gamble. (Wrong

He is addicted to gambling.(Right )

Reasons: Addicted is always followed by to plus a noun or not addicted to gamble.

3. This is adequate for your needs. (W)

This is adequate to your needs. (R )

Note: Adequate is always followed by the preposition to, not for.

4. He is the adopted father of Joseph. (W)

He is the adoptive father of Joseph. (R )

Reasons: It is the child who is adopted by the parents, not vice versa. Substitute adoptive parents – father, mother; adopted child – son, daughter is correct.

5. It is ten years ago since his father died. (W)

It was ten years ago that his father died. (R ) (or)

It is ten years since his father died. (R )

Note: Ago normally takes the past tense: it refers to point of time in the past, and reckons backwards from the present. It cannot, therefore, be combined with since, which reckons from a point of time in the past up to the present.

e.g: I have not seen him since last Christmas.

6. I agreed with his proposal. (W)

I agreed to his proposal. (R )

We agreed to him. (W)

We agreed with him. (R )

Note: The correct expression is “agree to an idea” or “agree with a person”.

7. Either you or I are to go. (W)

Either you or I am to go. (R )

Note: Agreement of verb and subject:- The rule is that a verb must agree with its subject in number and person.

The following points should be noted:-

(i) When a subject consists of two singular words coordinated by and it normally becomes a plural subject and must take a plural verb;

e.g: Your aunt and uncle have ariived. (R )

Note: Combinations like bread and butter, fish and chips, whisky and soda are singular.

(ii) When we use “Either. . . or”, “Neither. . .nor”, the verb should agree with its nearest subject.

e.g: Neither he nor she was there.

8. This book aims to give a general outline of the subject. (W)

This book aims at giving a general outline or the subject. (R)

Note: The correct idiomatic construction is - “aim at doing something”.

9. He gained admission to the premises under the alias of a police officer. (W)

He gained admission to the premises under the guise of a police officer. (R )

Note: In Latin “Alias” means “at another time”. In English it is used to indicate an assumed name by which a person is known for a certain part of his life or in certain circles.

e.g: Raman alias Gopal.

It may also be used as a noun, with the plural aliases: “He had several aliases”. It should be confined only to names. It cannot be used of a disguise or an assumed character, an incorrect use.

10. It is alright. (W)

It is all right. (R )

Note: The correct form is all right.

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7. Rabindranath Tagore
8. Indira Gandhi
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35. Jagadguru Sankaracharya
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42.Ballari Raghava
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45. Subrahmanya Bharathi
46. Social Reformer - Durgabai Deshmukh
47. Brahmarshi - Raghupati Venkataratnam Naidu
48. Raja Vasireddy Venkatadri Naidu
49. Sri Lakkoju Sanjeevaraya Sharma
50. Rallabandi Venkata Sastry
51. Annesaheb Karve

Pronouns : Common Errors - 5

1. (W) One should always remain loyal to his country.

(R) One should always remain loyal to one's country.

Note:- The indefinite pronoun "one" must always agree with one of its parts:

"oneself", "one's", "one", etc.

But this may some times be overdone, as in this excerpt from A Writer's note book by

Somerset Maugham:

"As one grows older one become more silent.

In one's youth one is ready to pour oneself out to the world;

one feels an intense fellowship with other people;

one wants to throw oneself in their arms and one feels that they will receive one;

one wants to open oneself to them so that they may take one;

one wants to penetrate into them;

one's life seems to overflow into the lives of others and become one with others as

the waters of rivers become one in the sea".

2. (W) I request your favour of considering me for a transfer.

(R) I request the favour of your considering me for a transfer.

Note:- Another typical error - not "your state of mind", but "the state of your

mind".

3. (W) You are fairer than me.

(R) You are fairer than I.

Note:- The complete sentence would read "you are fairer than I am".

4. (W) He is twenty years old. isn't it?

(R) He is twenty years old, isn't he?

Note:- In the second part of the sentence the object of the verb is "he" not "it".

5. (W) Kamala, having finished her paper, she left the examination hall.

(R) Kamala, having finished her paper, left the examination hall.

Note:- This is an example of a pronoun used where it is not required.

6. (W) Let you and I go together.

(R) Let you and me go together.

Note:- "Let" is a transitive verb; so it would be wrong to use the nominative after it.